9th July

On this day in history, in 1540, Henry VIII has his marriage to his fourth wife Anne of Cleves annulled.

Henry's first two wives, Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn, had failed to produce the much coveted male heir. Although each had produced a daughter, later Mary I and Elizabeth I, the King was desperate for a male heir to ensure the succession and the Tudor dynasty. His third wife, Jane Seymour, had given birth to a son (Edward I) but she had died soon after from complications with childbirth. On advice from his counsellors, primarily Thomas Cromwell, the King married Anne of Cleves. It was hoped that a Protestant marriage would consolidate the English reformation, and that Anne would produce another son to ensure the succession should anything happen to Edward. On arrival at court, Henry instantly disliked Anne, referring to her privately as a "Flanders mare".

The marriage was dissolved amicably, on the grounds of non-consummation (testified by Anne herself) and of Anne's precontract to marry the Duke of Lorraine. After the annulment Henry and Anne maintained good relations, and Anne was present to welcome Mary and Elizabeth into London in 1533, and at Mary I's coronation at Westminster.

14th May

On this day in history, in 1926, British Comedian John Eric Bartholomew, better known as Eric Morecambe, was born in Morecambe, Lancashire.

Morecambe is most remembered for his double act with Ernie Wise (Ernest Wiseman). The two met in 1939 when Morecambe was just 13, and while it was several years before they started working together, it was to be a long and successful partnership, culminating in the hugely popular Morecambe and Wise Show.

Eric Morecambe died in 1984, though in 1999 was voted the funniest person of the 20th century in a British internet poll. In the same year, though probably not for the same reason, a statue of Morecambe in one of his iconic Long John Silver poses was unveiled in Morecambe's home town.

18th March

On this day in history, in 1314, Jacques de Molay, the last Grand Master of the order of the Knights Templar is burned at the stake in Paris.

The Templars were originally founded as a military Christian order, whose main purpose was to protect pilgrims journeying to the Holy Land, while their non-military brothers developed a financial structure (akin to a crude version of a modern banking system). While the order was originally successful, their exclusive nature and gradually amassed wealth earned the mistrust of religious and secular leaders. Tales of bizarre initiation ceremonies and pseudo-pagan rites began to spread. Eventually the French king, Philip IV, issued a decree ostracizing the order, and Pope Clement V excommunicated the order (under pressure from Philip). Many Templars were arrested and tortured until they gave false confessions that collaborated with the popular stories.

De Molay was arrested, and though confessed he later rescinded. He and several others were taken to the Ile aux Juifs (now the Ile St Louis) in Paris to be burnt at the stake as relapsed heretics. According to legend, De Molay called out that both Pope Clement and Philip would soon meet him before God. The Pope died within the month, and Philip died in a hunting accident before the end of the year.

17th March

- St Patrick's Day -

Wishing a happy St Pat's to the Irish, the Irish descendants in the 'New World' and wannabe Irish around the world.

Gártha!

16th March

On this day in history, in 37AD, the young Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus became Emperor of Rome on the death of his uncle, Tiberius.

Gaius' father and grandfather were successful and popular Roman generals. His father received the agnomen 'Germanicus' in posthumous honour of his grandfather's military successes in Germania. Gaius himself accompanied his father on military campaigns, where he earned the nickname "Caligula" ("little boots") on account of his child-size legionnaire's outfit.

While Caligula's reign began successfully, he fell ill after two years in power. It was expected that he would die. The sources for his reign treat the illness as a turning point. Caligula recovered, but afterwards began a 'reign of terror' for which he is chiefly remembered. The many stories (making his favourite horse a senator, ordering his troops to pick up shells on the seashore) have lead historians to the conclusion that Caligula suffered from some form of mental illness, though a precise diagnosis is difficult to determine.

{Image: A bust of Caligula discovered in Thrace}

15th March

On this day in history, in 44BC, the Roman Imperator Julius Caesar was stabbed to death in the Senate by a crowd of senators.

The date, known as the Ides of March, was one of monthly feast days the Romans referred to as "ides". These dates were usually the 13th of each month, or the 15th in March, May, July and October. The Ides of March were associated with the god, Mars, and the day was set aside for festivities including a military parade.

Aside from Caesar's death, March 15th is also the date when the Tsar Nicholas II abdicated as Tsar of all the Russias in 1917.

14th March

On this day in history, in 1440, the Prussian Confederation was formed.

The Confederation consisted of 53 gentry and clergy and 19 Prussian cities (leading cities being Danzig, Elbing and Thorn), and its formation was the first step in opposing the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights. The Teutonic Order was originally formed to protect pilgrims travelling to the Holy Land; the State came into being in the 13th century during the Northern Crusades. After a troubled period, the Confederation rose in 1454, eventually defeating the Order after a thirteen years war.

12th March

On this day in history, in 1832, Filippo Taglioni's ballet La Sylphide premiered in Paris. Taglioni choreographed the ballet as a showcase for his daughter, the famous dancer Marie Taglioni.

The ballet has two Acts and is based around the doomed love between a young farmer, James, and a sylph. James is engaged to Effie, who in turn is loved by James' brother, Gurn. Though the story ends happily for Gurn and Effie, who become engaged in Act 2, the sylph and James eventually die as a result of the witch, Madge's, machinations.

In 1836, Danish balletmaster August Bournville choreographed his own version of the ballet. Taglioni's version has since been lost and the Bournville survives as one of Bournville's greatest works.

10th March

On this day in history, in 241, the First Punic War came to an end with the Battle of the Aegates Islands. The Roman commander Catullus achieved a decisive victory over the Carthaginian fleet, and, bereft of the resources to rebuild their fleet, the Carthaginians had no choice but to surrender. A peace treaty was signed, and the First Punic War came to an end.

9th March

On this day in history, in 1629, Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov was born in Moscow, to Eudoxia Streshneva and Tsar Mikhail I.

Alexei acceded to the throne at the age of 16, and he would rule until his death in 1676. His reign is generally regarded favourably by historians, and while he is often criticized for allowing himself to be lead by his ministers, he nonetheless seemed to have a knack for surrounding himself with competent and progressive advisors.

8th March

On this day in history, in 1126, Urraca of Castille and Léon died, leaving the kingdom to her son, Alfonso 1126. Urraca was to be the last of the Jiménez dynasty, her son being of the House of Burgundy as son of Raymond of Burgundy.

1st March

On this day in history, in 1953, Joseph Stalin suffered what is thought to have been a stroke. When he didn't emerge from his room his staff were concerned, though had been told not to disturb him. Eventually, at 10pm he was discovered by Peter Lozgachev, who sent for the doctor.

Stalin died four days later. The official cause of death named as "cerebral hemorrhage", though it is suspected that he was in fact assassinated.

28th February

On this day in history, in 1155, Henry 'the Young King' was born to Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. Henry was the second eldest of five sons and his father's chosen successor. The eldest son, William, had died in infancy.

Although Henry was crowned King at the age of 15, his father retained his power and is often criticized for not delegating some of the King's duties to his Henry. Henry died in 1183, while campaigning in the Limousin against his father and younger brother Richard. The succession was consequently unstable, and remained so until Richard eventually won out over his brothers Geoffrey and John (though John would succeed Richard).

The troublesome succession is the subject of the film The Lion In Winter.

27th February

On this day in history, in 272 (though the year is uncertain), Flavius Valerius Constantinus was born. His father was a skilled military man who had earned the governorship of Dalmatia from the Emperor Diocletian, and eventually he attained the position of Caesar; one of two, under two 'Augustii', Diocletian in the East and Maximian in the West. This form of government was to become known as the tetrarchy.

With this background, it is perhaps unsurprising that at the time of his father's death, it was expected that Constantinus should succeed him as Caesar. In 305 Diocletian announced his abdication, as did Maximian in an identical ceremony in Milan. There followed a period of civil war, known as the Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy, for full control of the empire. A deciding battle, the Battle of the Milvian Bridge eventually saw Constantius victorious. He united the empire and was to rule until his death in 337 as Constantine I, or Constantine the Great.

{Image: Bust of Constantine at the Capitoline Museum in Rome}

26th February

On this day in history, in 1815, Napoleon Bonaparte escaped from Elba.

In 1814, after the Battle of Paris, the allied states of Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Russia and Prussia negotiated the Treaty of Fontainebleu. The Treaty stipulated that Napoleon was to abdicate as Emperor of France, and was to be exiled to the island of Elba, the largest in the Tuscan archipelago. Though officially its own principality, with Napoleon as its head of state, the island was nevertheless a prison for Napoleon who at that time was regarded as "the sole obstacle to peace in Europe".

25th February

On this day in history in 138, the Roman Emperor Hadrian adopted Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus. Antoninus recieved tribunician power and imperium, and was officially Hadrian's successor. Three years later he would begin his reign in Rome as 'Antoninus Pius', the fourth of the 'Five Good Emperors'. The fifth would be Marcus Aurelius, a member of the Aurelii Fulvii family and nephew of Antoninus Pius.

{Image source: taken by Ricardo André Frantz of the bust of Hadrian in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens}

24th February

On this day in history, Aethelbert, King of Kent, died in 616. His feast day was originally 24th February, but it was subsequently moved to the 25th.

He had ruled from about 580/590 to his death. He is listed by the monk Bede, in hisEcclesiastical History of the English People, as the third king to hold imperium over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The first was Aelle of Sussex (488 - c.514). Aside from Kent's rich and fertile lands, Aethelbert also had a powerful continental ally in the Franks - his wife, Bertha was the daughter of Charibert, King of the Franks. It is thought that due to Bertha's influence, papal missionaries were able to put down the roots of Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons. Aethelbert was later canonized for this role in British Christian history, and his code of laws for Kent is the earliest known written law in any Germanic language.

23rd February

On this day in history, in 1739, Richard Palmer is identified as the famous highwayman Dick Turpin.

Whilst incarcerated at York, Turpin (or "Palmer" as he was calling himself) wrote a letter to his brother-in-law, Pompr Rivernall. Rivernall refused to pay the delivery charge on the letter when it arrived at Hempstead post office, saying he had no correspondent in York. The letter was moved to the post office at Saffron Walden where it was seen by James Smith, a former teacher of Turpin's, who recognised the handwriting. Smith eventually travelled to York and identified "Palmer" as Dick Turpin. On March 22nd, after a short trial, Turpin was convicted of horse theft, and he was subsequently executed on the 7th of April.

22nd February

On this day in history, in 1632, Gallileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systemswas published in Florence, Italy. Though initially published under a formal license from the Inquisition, the book was subsequently placed on the 'Index of Forbidden Books', and Gallileo himself was convicted of 'grave suspicion of heresy' in 1633. The book was not removed from the index until 1835.

The Dialogue compares traditional Ptolemaic system (where the Universe orbits the Earth) and the Copernican system (where the planets orbit the Sun). The Ptolemaic system takes its name from Claudius Ptolemaeus, writer of Almagest - a treatise on the complex movements of the planets based on Babylonian and Greek astronomical observations. An edition of theAlmagest was printed in 1515. Copernicus had published his theories in 1543.

Gallileo's Dialogue is presented in a style reminiscent of Plato, where several protagonists have detailed discussions about the merits and faults of the Copernican and Ptolemaic system

21st February

On this day in history, in 1613, Mikhail Fyodorovich Romanov was crowned 'Mikhail I', Tsar of Imperial Russia. Although only 17 on his accession, his rule marked the end of the time of troubles and his dynasty, the Romanovs, were to rule for 300 years until the downfall of the monarchy in the 1917 Russian Revolution.

20th February

On this day in history, in 1547, Prince Edward was crowned Edward VI, King of England at the age of 9. Due to his youth, a Regency Council had been created to aid Edward in ruling until he reached the age of 18. He died only six years after acceding to the throne of an infection of the lungs, thought by some to be tuberculosis.

He was succeeded by his half sister Mary, and England was once again ruled by a Catholic monarch. Edward was the first King of England to be raised as a Protestant and it was during his reign that Anglicanism was established.

19th February

Today, in 197, Severus Septimius finally defeated Clodius Albinus, securing his sole control over the Roman Empire as the Emperor Severus I.

After the assassination of the Emperor Commodus in 193, there followed a period of uncertain succession, referred to as 'The Year of the Five Emperors'. The first competitor, Pertinax, was murdered by the Praetorian guard after having reigned only 86 days. He was followed by Didius Julianus, who himself was condemned to death by the Senate after Severus arrived in Italy and took Rome without opposition. Meanwhile in Syria, the legions had proclaimed Pescennius Niger emperor. Severus moved East and crushed Niger in the Battle of Issus. Eventually matters came to a head when Severus declared Caracalla his heir - a move that antagonized Clodius Albinus, who Severus had previously made Caesar and thus impliedly his heir. Albinus was proclaimed emperor by his troops. He met Severus in the Battle of Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France). Albinus was crushed and killed. Severus gained complete control over the Empire, and founded the Severan dynasty which was to reign for 42 years.

18th February

On this day in 1404, Leone Battista Alberti was born. Alberti has several claims to fame, being something of the all-round Renaissance chap. He was an author and architect, poet and priest, linguist, philosopher, cryptographer and humanist - the quintessential Renaissance polymath.

He studied Classics, trained in Law and wrote several important works. In all his writing he expounded his philosophy that the ultimate goal of art was to imitate nature, and he saw mathematics as the foundation blocks of art, and of science. His most well-known work (in art circles at least) is De Pictura, or Della Pittura (1435). He dedicated the work to Filippo Brunelleschi, a self-taught architect who had previously formulated a set of principles for linear perspective. Alberti picked up Brunelleschi's work and further developed the theory to produce a coherent mathematical structure of perspective relevant to the viewer.

Della Pittura is still considered a seminal work, and is essential reading for all art historians.

6th February

On this day in history, the Treaty of Waitangi was signed in 1840 in New Zealand. The 6th of February is marked as a national holiday in New Zealand to commemorate the event.

European settlers and Maori gathered at James Busby's house at Waitangi in the North Island of New Zealand to sign the Treaty, which was to establish New Zealand as a British colony, and would grant Maori the rights of British subjects. The text was written both in Maori and English, and inconsistencies between versions subsequently lead to many a legal debate over exactly what the Treaty established. Today, though it has a complex legal past, the Treaty is generally acknowledged as an important founding document in the New Zealand's legal history.

And on the first day...

On this day in history, this year, this blog was created. Welcome!